Enclosed: How Conservation, Cattle, and Commerce Shape the Q'eqchi' Maya Livelihoods and Landscapes

Enclosed: Conservation, Cattle, and Commerce Among the Q'eqchi' Maya Lowlanders

In this article, I will review and summarize the book Enclosed: Conservation, Cattle, and Commerce Among the Qeqchi Maya Lowlanders, written by Liza Grandia, an anthropologist who has worked with the Qeqchi Maya for nearly twenty years. The book is based on her doctoral dissertation and extensive fieldwork in Petén, Guatemala, where she witnessed and documented how the Qeqchi have faced multiple waves of dispossession and enclosure of their lands and resources by various actors and interests. The book offers a rich and nuanced analysis of how the Qeqchi have resisted, adapted, negotiated, and contested these processes, while also highlighting their agency, creativity, and resilience. The book also contributes to broader debates on enclosure, commons, conservation, development, indigenous rights, and political ecology.

Enclosed: Conservation, Cattle, And Commerce Among

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Introduction

What is enclosure and why is it important to study?

Grandia defines enclosure as the privatization or state appropriation of common property resources (p. 4), which has been a recurring phenomenon throughout history. She traces the origins of enclosure to England in the sixteenth century, when common lands were fenced off by landlords to raise sheep for wool production. This resulted in the displacement and impoverishment of peasants, who were forced to migrate to urban areas or overseas colonies. Grandia argues that enclosure is not only a material process but also an ideological one, as it involves the erasure of alternative ways of knowing nature (p. 5). She contends that studying enclosure is important because it reveals how power relations shape access to land and resources, as well as how different groups of people understand and value nature.

Who are the Qeqchi Maya and where do they live?

The Qeqchi are one of the largest indigenous groups in Guatemala, with a population of about one million. They speak a Mayan language called Qeqchi, which has many dialects. They live mainly in the departments of Alta Verapaz, Izabal, Petén, and El Quiché. They practice a diversified agriculture that includes maize, beans, rice, coffee, cacao, cardamom, bananas, citrus fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, flowers, honey, chickens, pigs, turkeys, ducks, goats, sheep, and cattle. They also rely on hunting, fishing, gathering, and trading for their livelihoods. They have a complex and dynamic social organization that includes clans, lineages, kinship networks, cooperatives, associations, and councils. They have a rich and diverse cultural heritage that includes oral traditions, rituals, ceremonies, music, dance, art, crafts, medicine, cosmology, and worldview.

What are the main arguments and contributions of the book?

The book has four main arguments. First, it shows how the Qeqchi have been subjected to repeated cycles of enclosure by different actors and interests, such as colonialism, liberalism, capitalism, nationalism, militarism, conservationism, and neoliberalism. Second, it demonstrates how the Qeqchi have resisted and adapted to these enclosures by using various strategies, such as migration, settlement, cultivation, alliance, litigation, protest, negotiation, and innovation. Third, it illustrates how the Qeqchi have maintained and recreated their commons by drawing on their collective memory, identity, values, norms, institutions, and practices. Fourth, it challenges the dominant narratives and representations of the Qeqchi as passive victims or destructive invaders, and instead highlights their agency, creativity, and resilience.

Liberal Plunder: A Recurring Qeqchi History

How did colonialism and liberalism shape the Qeqchi land tenure and livelihoods?

In this chapter, Grandia provides a historical overview of how the Qeqchi land tenure and livelihoods were shaped by colonialism and liberalism from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. She argues that the Qeqchi were not isolated or static before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers, but rather had a dynamic and diverse history of migration, settlement, trade, and interaction with other groups. She also argues that the Qeqchi were not submissive or compliant to the colonial system, but rather resisted and adapted to it by using various tactics, such as evasion, rebellion, accommodation, conversion, and collaboration. She shows how the Qeqchi developed a flexible and communal land tenure system that allowed them to access and manage multiple ecological zones and resources. She also shows how the Qeqchi diversified their livelihoods by combining subsistence agriculture with cash crops, such as cacao and indigo.

What were the impacts of coffee plantations, cattle ranches, and land reform on the Qeqchi communities?

In this chapter, Grandia analyzes how the Qeqchi communities were affected by coffee plantations, cattle ranches, and land reform from the late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries. She argues that these processes were driven by liberal policies that promoted private property rights, export-oriented production, and state intervention. She argues that these processes resulted in the dispossession and displacement of many Qeqchi communities from their lands and resources. She also argues that these processes generated social inequalities and conflicts among different groups of people, such as landlords, peasants, workers, migrants, settlers, and soldiers. She shows how some Qeqchi communities resisted these processes by organizing cooperatives, unions, movements, and guerrillas. She also shows how some Qeqchi communities adapted to these processes by migrating to new areas, establishing new settlements, and cultivating new crops, such as coffee, cardamom, and cattle.

How did the Qeqchi resist and adapt to these changes?

In this chapter, Grandia examines how the Qeqchi resisted and adapted to these changes from the late twentieth to the early twenty-first centuries. She argues that these changes were driven by neoliberal policies that promoted market liberalization, privatization, deregulation, and globalization. She argues that these changes resulted in the enclosure and commodification of land and resources by various actors and interests, such as conservationists, developers, corporations, NGOs, and governments. She also argues that these changes created new challenges and opportunities for the Qeqchi communities in terms of access, participation, representation, and recognition. She shows how some Qeqchi communities resisted these changes by forming alliances with other indigenous groups and social movements at local, national, and international levels. She also shows how some Qeqchi communities adapted to these changes by engaging in new markets and industries such as carbon credits and sustainability.

The New Enclosure Movement: Conservation and Development in Petén

How did the creation of protected areas and biosphere reserves affect the Qeqchi' access to land and resources?

In this chapter, Grandia explores how the creation of protected areas Here is the continuation of the article with HTML formatting: The New Enclosure Movement: Conservation and Development in Petén

How did the creation of protected areas and biosphere reserves affect the Qeqchi' access to land and resources?

In this chapter, Grandia explores how the creation of protected areas and biosphere reserves affected the Qeqchi' access to land and resources in Petén from the 1980s to the 2000s. She argues that these interventions were part of a new enclosure movement that aimed to conserve biodiversity and promote development in the region, but also served to advance geopolitical and economic interests of various actors, such as the US government, international donors, conservation NGOs, and private companies. She argues that these interventions resulted in the exclusion and marginalization of many Qeqchi' communities from their ancestral territories and customary practices. She also argues that these interventions generated new forms of violence and insecurity for the Qeqchi', such as militarization, drug trafficking, land grabbing, and illegal logging.

What were the contradictions and conflicts between conservation and development agendas in Petén?

In this chapter, Grandia analyzes the contradictions and conflicts between conservation and development agendas in Petén from the 1990s to the 2010s. She argues that these agendas were often incompatible and inconsistent, as they pursued different objectives and visions for the region. She argues that conservation agendas focused on preserving nature as a global public good, while neglecting or undermining the rights and needs of local people. She argues that development agendas focused on promoting economic growth and modernization, while ignoring or exacerbating the environmental and social costs of these processes. She shows how these agendas clashed over issues such as land tenure, resource use, governance, participation, and benefit sharing. She also shows how these agendas created divisions and tensions among different groups of people, such as conservationists, developers, Qeqchi', and other indigenous groups.

How did the Qeqchi' negotiate and contest these interventions?

In this chapter, Grandia examines how the Qeqchi' negotiated and contested these interventions from the 2000s to the present. She argues that the Qeqchi' were not passive or powerless in the face of these interventions, but rather active and resourceful in defending and reclaiming their lands and resources. She argues that the Qeqchi' used various strategies to negotiate and contest these interventions, such as legal action, political mobilization, media advocacy, cultural revitalization, and alternative development. She shows how some Qeqchi' communities succeeded in securing their rights and interests in relation to conservation and development projects, such as community forest concessions, ecotourism enterprises, and agroforestry initiatives. She also shows how some Qeqchi' communities faced challenges and limitations in achieving their goals and aspirations in relation to conservation and development interventions, such as lack of recognition, representation, capacity, and resources.

The Greening of Enclosure: Carbon Credits and Sustainability Industries

How did the global market for carbon credits and sustainability industries influence the Qeqchi' land use and management?

In this chapter, Grandia explores how the global market for carbon credits and sustainability industries influenced the Qeqchi' land use and management in Petén from the 2010s onwards. She argues that these markets were part of a greening of enclosure movement that aimed to mitigate climate change and promote green economy in the region, but also served to commodify nature and appropriate its value by various actors, such as corporations, investors, brokers, certifiers, and intermediaries. She argues that these markets resulted in the transformation and standardization of land use and management practices by imposing new rules, regulations, incentives, and sanctions on the Qeqchi'. She also argues that these markets created new risks and uncertainties for the Qeqchi', such as price volatility, contract dependency, monitoring costs, and leakage effects.

What were the challenges and opportunities for the Qeqchi' participation in these schemes?

In this chapter, Grandia analyzes the challenges and opportunities for the Qeqchi' participation in these schemes from the 2010s onwards. She argues that these schemes were often inaccessible and unequal for the Qeqchi', as they required high levels of technical, financial, and organizational capacity and compliance that the Qeqchi' lacked or could not afford. She argues that these schemes were also often unfair and unaccountable for the Qeqchi', as they involved complex and opaque processes and actors that the Qeqchi' could not understand or influence. She shows how some Qeqchi' communities faced difficulties and disadvantages in participating in these schemes, such as low returns, high risks, limited benefits, and loss of control. She also shows how some Qeqchi' communities sought opportunities and advantages in participating in these schemes, such as improved management, increased income, enhanced reputation, and strengthened networks.

How did the Qeqchi' cope with the risks and uncertainties of these markets?

In this chapter, Grandia examines how the Qeqchi' coped with the risks and uncertainties of these markets from the 2010s onwards. She argues that the Qeqchi' were not naive or helpless in dealing with these markets, but rather cautious and pragmatic in managing their exposure and vulnerability to them. She argues that the Qeqchi' used various strategies to cope with the risks and uncertainties of these markets, such as diversification, adaptation, innovation, and collaboration. She shows how some Qeqchi' communities reduced their dependence and increased their resilience to these markets by diversifying their activities, products, and markets. She also shows how some Qeqchi' communities adapted their practices and innovated their solutions to meet the demands and challenges of these markets. She further shows how some Qeqchi' communities collaborated with other actors and organizations to access and benefit from these markets.

Conclusion

What are the main findings and implications of the book?

In this concluding chapter, Grandia summarizes the main findings and implications of the book. She argues that the book provides a comprehensive and critical account of how the Qeqchi' have experienced and responded to multiple waves of enclosure of their lands and resources by different actors and interests over time. She argues that the book reveals the complexity and diversity of the Qeqchi' reality and history, as well as their agency and creativity in shaping their own destiny. She argues that the book challenges the dominant narratives and representations of the Qeqchi' as passive victims or destructive invaders, and instead highlights their resistance and adaptation, as well as their contributions and aspirations. She argues that the book has important implications for policy and practice, as it calls for a recognition and respect of the Qeqchi' rights and needs, a support and empowerment of their capacities and initiatives, and a dialogue and collaboration among different stakeholders.

What are the limitations and gaps of the book?

In this concluding chapter, Grandia also acknowledges the limitations and gaps of the book. She admits that the book is not exhaustive or definitive, but rather selective and partial, as it reflects her own perspective and experience as an anthropologist who has worked with the Qeqchi' for nearly twenty years. She admits that the book is not representative or generalizable, but rather specific and contextual, as it focuses on a particular group of people and a particular region of Guatemala. She admits that the book is not updated or current, but rather outdated and historical, as it covers mainly the period from the 1980s to the 2010s, while many changes have occurred since then. She invites other researchers and practitioners to complement and update her work with new data and insights.

What are some suggestions for future research and action?

In this concluding chapter, Grandia also offers some suggestions for future research and action. She suggests that more research is needed to understand and address the emerging issues and challenges that affect the Qeqchi' communities in Petén, such as climate change, COVID-19 pandemic, migration, urbanization, violence, corruption, and human rights violations. She suggests that more action is needed to support and strengthen the Qeqchi' communities in Petén, such as renewing their forest concessions, improving their livelihoods, enhancing their governance, protecting their culture, and advancing their justice. She suggests that more collaboration is needed among different actors and sectors to achieve sustainable and equitable outcomes for the Qeqchi' communities in Petén, such as government agencies, civil society organizations, private sector entities, academic institutions, media outlets, and international donors.

FAQs

• What is enclosure?

Here is the continuation of the article with HTML formatting: FAQs

• What is enclosure?

Enclosure is the privatization or state appropriation of common property resources, which has been a recurring phenomenon throughout history.

• Who are the Qeqchi' Maya and where do they live?

The Qeqchi' are one of the largest indigenous groups in Guatemala, with a population of about one million. They speak a Mayan language called Qeqchi', which has many dialects. They live mainly in the departments of Alta Verapaz, Izabal, Petén, and El Quiché.

• What are the main arguments and contributions of the book Enclosed: Conservation, Cattle, and Commerce Among the Qeqchi Maya Lowlanders?

The book has four main arguments. First, it shows how the Qeqchi' have been subjected to repeated cycles of enclosure by different actors and interests. Second, it demonstrates how the Qeqchi' have resisted and adapted to these enclosures by using various strategies. Third, it illustrates how the Qeqchi' have maintained and recreated their commons by drawing on their collective memory, identity, values, norms, institutions, and practices. Fourth, it challenges the dominant narratives and representations of the Qeqchi' as passive victims or destructive invaders, and instead highlights their agency, creativity, and resilience.

• What are some of the challenges and opportunities for the Qeqchi' participation in carbon credits and sustainability industries?

Some of the challenges are: high levels of technical, financial, and organizational capacity and compliance required; complex and opaque processes and actors involved; low returns, high risks, limited benefits, and loss of control. Some of the opportunities are: improved management, increased income, enhanced reputation, and strengthened networks.

• What are some suggestions for future research and action?

Some suggestions are: more research to understand and address the emerging issues and challenges that affect the Qeqchi' communities in Petén; more action to support and strengthen the Qeqchi' communities in Petén; more collaboration among different actors and sectors to achieve sustainable and equitable outcomes for the Qeqchi' communities in Petén.

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